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Textiles and fibers

About bleaching cotton, viscose, silk, finishing, textile soap, waterproofing sailcloth, tarpaulins and fabrics, making textiles non-flammable and more ...

The modern textile industry has such an enormous number of operations on fibers and fabrics that it is absolutely impossible to give a correct description of this in a small specification. The many special effects are obtained using extremely complicated processes. Each type of fiber requires a very special treatment during dyeing, spinning and weaving.

The main fibers that nature offers us are cotton, wool and silk. In addition, it has been possible to develop several types of artificial silk in such a way that they can not only replace natural fibers, but also have very special properties, so that they can be used completely independently.

Identifying fibers

	Cotton	Linen	Jute	Hemp	Rameh
← scroll → when reading on a small screen
to burn	burn easily with acrid odor
caustic soda NaOH s.g. 1,38	insoluble	insoluble	brown insoluble	yellow insoluble	insoluble
alkaline lead solution	neg.	neg.	neg.	neg.	neg.
sulphuric acid s.g. 1,84	dissolves quickly	slowly soluble	slowly soluble	slowly soluble	slowly soluble
nitric acid	insoluble	insoluble	brown insoluble	yellow insoluble	insoluble
ammoniacal copper solution	soluble	soluble	insoluble	insoluble	insoluble
aniline sulfate	neg.	neg.	yellow	yellow	neg.
acetone	neg.	neg.	neg.	neg.	neg.
iodine and sulphuric acid	blue	blue	yellow	yellow	blue

	Viscose	Chardonet	Neetant	Wool	Silk
← scroll → when reading on a small screen
to burn	easily with biting smell		forms drops	burn slowly with characteristic smell
caustic soda NaOH s.g. 1,38	unchanged	partly resolves	the fiber swells	cold soluble	warm soluble
alkaline lead solution	neg.	neg.	neg.	zwart	neg.
sulphuric acid s.g. 1,84	resolve quickly			slowly soluble	slowly soluble
nitric acid	easily dissolve with yellow color	yellow insoluble	yellow soluble
ammoniacal copper solution	partially soluble		unchanged	insoluble	cold soluble
aniline sulfate	neg.	neg.	neg.	neg.	neg.
acetone	insoluble	neg.	soluble	neg.	neg.
iodine and sulphuric acid	neg.	neg.	neg.	neg.	neg.
diphenylamine and sulfuric acid	neg.	blue	neg.	neg.	neg.

Bonding fabrics

For all fine fabrics, pure skin glue is used for this purpose. Sulfur dioxide and sulfites must not be present, not even in traces. Since the dyes used later in the dyeing process are very sensitive, the adhesive solution used must not contain any acid or alkali.

For cotton fabric one takes hide glue or bone glue; the fabric becomes firmer and feels thicker. The concentration of the adhesive solution must meet very special requirements here; too thin, the solution penetrates completely into the fiber and makes it too hard, too thick, the glue remains entirely on the outside of the fiber and does not adhere sufficiently to the fiber. A thin glue solution is now taken and then alum is added, making the solution thicker without containing too much glue. Rugs, woven wallpaper and other heavy fabrics are usually glued in this way, as is the straw used for making hats. If the color must remain pure white, the glue is bleached beforehand.

Bronze printing on fabrics

To decorate fabrics, they are often printed with metal powder, i.e. bronze powder with hot glue or gelatin solutions as binding agent. Bronze powder is now available in many colors and consists of aluminum or copper alloys. The rollers used for printing must be heated with steam. The printed fabric is dried immediately after printing.

By using the hot glue solution, the metal powder adheres very strongly to the fabric. However, this is improved considerably by pressing the dry printed fabric between heavy calender rollers; this also increases the gloss.

Although a large part of the fabric printed with metal is used for carnival clothing, here and there fabrics intended for everyday use are printed with metal powders, in this case, of course, extremely thin and inconspicuous. Here, of course, the metal powder must be firmly attached to the fabric and better binding agents must be used. Binders such as blood glue, which are insoluble after drying, are sometimes used, or binders such as rubber or cellulose esters.

For example, 10 dl of blood albumin is soaked overnight with 15 dl of water, then dissolved, filtered, ¾ dl of turpentine essence is added and finally mixed with 1-3 dl of bronze powder.

Since the blood albumin is never completely odourless, it is sometimes replaced by egg albumin, which, however, is much more expensive.

Sometimes rubber is used as a binder. To this end, caoutchouc is dissolved in petrol and 1000 dl of the solution is now mixed with 100-150 dl of bronze powder.

Cellulose acetate is used as a binder for printing very fine designs. A solution of cellulose in copper oxide-ammonia is also used. The ratio of binder to bronze powder must be determined in practice, and printing fabrics is generally a matter of experience.

Very beautiful effects are achieved by mixing the bronze paints with dyes.

Concentrated chain paste for cotton

Sulfonated talc	36-42	dl
Beef fat	18-24	dl
Tragacanth	1-1,5	dl
Water	38-45	dl
The tragacanth is first soaked in water and then the solution is boiled to a jelly. In addition, the sulfonated talc is mixed with the untreated fat and heated. The jelly is then poured into the fat and stirred until the emulsion is completely homogeneous. Finally, preservative is added.
Cotton fields

Finishing for fantasy fabrics

Dextrin	150	dl
Epsom salt	90	dl
Monopoly soap	7	dl
Water	753	dl
or thicker:
Dextrin	200	dl
Epsom salt	130	dl
Glucose	50	dl
Monopoly soap	7	dl
Water	723	dl
or cheaper:
Potato flour	50	dl
Epsom salt	50	dl
Monopoly soap	5	dl
Water	895	dl
The different ingredients must be dissolved separately in water, the solutions are then mixed. The monopole soap must be dissolved in as much water as possible before adding it to the rest. Mixing is improved by immediately dissolving a small amount of dextrin together with the soap. It is then not necessary to boil the finishing again after adding the soap.

Concentrated finishing for cotton

Sulfonated talc	22-26	dl
Japan wax	12-15	dl
25-pcts trisodium phosphate
solution	20-24	dl
Water	50-60	dl

The Japan wax is first emulsified with part of the trisodium phosphate. The talc is then mixed with one third of the wax emulsion and the remainder of the phosphate solution and emulsified. Finally, the rest of the wax emulsion is added and stirred until the emulsion is completely homogeneous. The emulsion should not be boiled.

Soluble starch

Starch	100	dl
Activin	1	dl
Water	1200	dl

The starch is boiled in a wooden vessel with a stirrer, preferably with direct steam, until the starch solution is sufficiently thin. The process takes about 20 to 30 minutes. After this, the starch solution is allowed to cool.

Dyeing cotton [1]

The pre-treatment of the cotton before dyeing depends entirely on the condition in which the material arrives at the dyehouse.

Strands are usually boiled out under slight positive pressure with a 0.25-0.5% solution of calcined soda containing 1% sulfonated oil for 3 hours. When the fabric is ready, it must be particularly carefully boiled to remove all the finishing, otherwise the fabric will absorb the dye unevenly during dyeing and then the most beautiful maps are sometimes created. Certainty is provided by adding 0.1-0.2% activin (the sodium salt of p-toluol sulfochloramide). Fabric to be bleached is boiled with a solution of 3% caustic soda, 2% calcined soda, 1% sulfonated fat and 0.1-0.2% activin for 4 hours. A solution of iodine in potassium iodine can be used to check whether all the starch has dissolved.

Pieces of fabric, which later have to be dyed with vat dyes, are sewn together in such a way that the ends overlap. When sewing together, dark stripes will appear later. Fine fabrics and also knitted goods are not cooked under pressure but in open kettles. Raw cotton and raw yarns are boiled in mechanical equipment, often only cold-treated to make the material easier to spin.

Apparatuses have been constructed for dyeing yarns on spools and entire warp beams. However, with many dyes it is then difficult to obtain a completely uniform shade. By the way, dyeing yarn in skeins is not easy and requires a lot of experience. There are all kinds of aids to ensure that the color is absorbed more evenly, but many of these preparations impair the dyeing process itself. Favorable results are obtained with glucose, but the amount of lye must then be increased. The most evenly dyed skeins are obtained when the dyer masters the art by wringing out the skein in between and, in the case of vat dyes, by adding hydrosulphite again to eliminate the uneven influences; this is a matter of experience. Furthermore, with vat dyes one can start at too low a temperature and only raise the temperature when the strands are thoroughly moist.

After painting, the material must be hung out to absorb oxygen. This oxidation can be carried out much more quickly and easily by post-oxidizing with a bath of 0.5 cm2. 30 pc hydrogen peroxide per liter.

Sodium perborate can also be taken, and as much as 1-3% of the weight of the treated yarns. At 30°-38℃ the oxidation is finished in fifteen minutes. After this, the liquid can be heated to boiling and soap can be added.

Dyeing cotton [2]

Nowadays, cotton is usually dyed with direct-dye dyes, ie dyes that adhere to the fiber without special preparation. The dye bath should contain only a certain amount of table salt. These dyes are the easiest to apply for the layman and give the best results. In addition, these dyes also come on the market in small quantities packaged.

For yellow, take 1 kg of dye and 5 kg of table salt per 100 kg of cotton. The bath is set at 60℃ and at this temperature the cotton is immersed in the liquid. The solution is now gradually heated to boiling and is continued to boil with the substance for about 45 minutes. The fabric is then thoroughly washed and rinsed and finally dried.

For a normal red one takes 2 kg of dye and 10 kg of salt per 100 kg of cotton, also for normal blue and green; for black one takes 5 kg of dye and 25 kg of salt.

The names of dyes vary by manufacturer. When ordering aniline dyes for this purpose and also for dyeing all other substances, the purpose for which they are used should be specified to the supplier as precisely as possible.

Some dyes are:
chrysamine yellow, chloramine yellow, aurophenine, dianylo orange, chlorantine yellow, diamine yellow, congo red, oxamine red, dianyl red, thiazine red, congorubin, diaminbrillant violet, dianyl garnet, chlorantine bordeaux, diaminerosa, erica, geranine, diamin blue, oxamine blue, azo blue, brillantazurin , brilliant blue, diphenyl green, dianyl green, congo brown, pluto brown, cupranil brown, dianyl black, diamine black, columbia black, benzo black, etc.

Dyeing knitted products

One works with direct dyes. For light colours, the dye is first dissolved, filtered and then added to the rest of the water in the tub. First dye for 10 minutes at 27°C, then 5% of the fabric Glauber's salt is added and the temperature is raised to 50°C; the correct shade should now be achieved in 15 minutes.

For darker colours, take more Glauber's salt and increase the temperature to 71℃. Finally add ½-1% pure olive oil soap and dry at 38℃.

Removing paint from wool

The wool is first treated with a dilute solution of ammonia. One takes 3-5% ammonia, calculated in relation to the weight of the wool. The wool should be thoroughly soaked with the solution. After this, the wool is washed with warm water. If necessary, the operation can be repeated with 2% ammonia.

Now 3 to 5% basic zinc sulfoxalate formaldehyde is dissolved in hot water in a wooden tub with the addition of 3 to 5% acetic acid at 28%. The wool is now heated with this solution to boiling and allowed to boil for 20 minutes. After this, another 3% acetic acid is added and the mixture is boiled again for 15 minutes. Finally, the wool is washed well with warm water.

Paint straw green

Hat straw can be dyed very beautifully light green with a solution of 5% acetic acid and 5% malachite green in crystals. One paints at 70', it takes about an hour, depending on the shade one wants to achieve. After this, the straw is taken out of the bath, washed well with clean water, centrifuged and dried at a low temperature.

Dyeing wool

For wool, so-called acid dyes are usually used. Sulfuric acid or acetic acid is added as acid. Usually the dye bath also contains Glauber's salt.

Per 100 kg of wool one takes:

Water	3000	l
Sulfuric acid	3	kg
Glauber's salt	10	kg
Dye	1-5	kg

depending on the shade and the depth of color desired, just as with cotton one usually needs 1 kg for yellow, 2 kg for red, blue and green and 5 kg for black.

The solution is heated to 60℃. The tissue is immersed in the liquid, gradually heated to boiling and gently boiled for three quarters of an hour.

Dyes:

Yellow:	naphtol yellow, tartrozine, flavavin, metanil yellow, quinoling yellow, kitone yellow, supraming yellow, etc.
orange:	orange II, N, IV, Kitone Orange, G, R, etc.
red:	ponceau, brilliant crocein, scarlet red, roccellin, azorubin, naphtol red, amaranth, bordeaux, lanafuchsin, kiton red, etc.
violet:	acid violet, victoria violet, guinea violet, etc.
blue:	azo acid blue, naphthalene blue, cyanine, cyanol, wool blue, neptune blue, water blue, indigo carmine, kitony blue, neolan blue, wool blue, etc.
green:	acid green, neptune green, naphtaline green, cyanol green, etc.
black:	naphtylamine black, naphtol blue black, naphtol black, brilliant black, acid black, amidonaphtol black, palatine black, agalma black, azo acid black, etc.

Particularly lightfast colors are obtained with the anthraquinone dyes, which are produced in almost all colours.

The neolan dyes, which are metal compounds of azo dyes, are processed in rather strongly acidic solutions, but produce extremely lightfast colours.

In weakly acidic solutions, the resolcine dyes are used, which give exceptionally bright and vibrant colours. To this end, the wool is first treated with a solution of: 2% cream of tartar, 2% alum and 1-2% acetic acid; one cooks about 1½ o'clock. After this one cools to 40℃ off, add the coloring and slowly heat back to boiling. Finally, it is boiled for another half hour.

For very cheap colors, basic dyes are used, which are processed in a neutral solution. The lime is removed from the water by adding about 0.5 to 1.5 l of diluted acetic acid per 1000 l, the dye is dissolved and then dyed for about 45 minutes slightly below the boiling point. With some dyes the temperature may not exceed 70°C, this is the case with auramine, diamond fuchsin and diamond green.

As dyes are used: auramines, thioflavin yellow, cerise, rhodamine, fuchsin, safranin, methyl violet, crystal violet, victoria blue, methylene blue, malachite green, brilliant green, chrysoidin, Bismarck brown, vesuvine, phosphine, etc.

Dyeing silk

Silk can be dyed with direct, acidic and basic dyes. However, it takes an enormous amount of experience to obtain a certain shade and silk dyeing is a profession in which one never stops learning.

The direct dyes are processed in neutral solution. With some dyes it is necessary to make the bath slightly acidic with acetic acid towards the end of the dyeing process.

With the acidic dyes, the bath is made acidic with sulfuric acid, while with the basic dyes a little acetic acid is usually added.

The dyes are the same as those used for cotton and wool.

Real silk is seldom simply dyed, the silk is almost always made heavier with the help of insoluble salts. In the first place, one usually wants to add back the weight loss that occurs when the bark is boiled out. In addition, one wants to make the silk as heavy as possible to make the fabric shine more in quality than it actually is. The silk is therefore treated alternately with salt solution, which causes insoluble precipitates to form in and on the fibre. These precipitates are adapted to the color the silk is to acquire. For black, of course, the darkest possible precipitates are taken, so that later the color covers better and it is therefore easier to obtain a really deep black. One takes, for example, Berlin blue.

Cleaning cotton and artificial silk

Turkish red oil	5	dl
Olive oil soap	5	dl
Caustic soda (NaOH)	1	dl
Water	800	dl

The tissue is heated with the solution at about 93℃ for 1 to 2 hours. When the tissue contains celanese the temperature must remain below 80℃.

Cleaning knitwear

Trisodium Phosphate	1	dl
Olive oil soap	2	dl
Water	97	dl

Rinse with soft water.

Cotton bleaching

The cotton is first impregnated with a solution of Turkish red oil. Take a solution of 5 to 10% and wring the cotton well. The cotton is then dried.

This is followed by cooking with a very dilute lye solution, 1½ up to 2%. The cotton is then washed, slightly acidified and washed again with clean water. This is followed by a very weak soap bath and the cotton is cleaned again and finally dried.

When the cotton is very pure, the Turkish red oil can be mixed immediately with the lye. This preparation is of great importance in obtaining a pure white yarn, as is required for better cotton fabrics.

When using lime, the Turkish red oil is added immediately to the slaked lime and then first diluted with water. The milk of lime thus obtained settles very slowly and penetrates well into the fibre. This is followed by bleaching with chlorinated lime solution or sodium hypochlorite, often followed by an anti-chlorine bath to remove the last traces of chlorine from the cotton. Rinse well with clean, soft water between the various operations.

When bleaching with sodium hypochlorite, ordinary chlorinated lime is usually used and converted into the sodium salt with soda. To this end, 100 dl of bleaching powder is mixed with 300 dl of water and 60 dl of calcined soda is dissolved in 200 dl of boiling water and then diluted with 100 dl of cold water. The soda solution is then poured into the bleaching powder, stirred for half an hour and the precipitate then allowed to settle. The next day the supernatant clear liquid is poured off, the precipitate is stirred again with water and after settling it is poured off again. The solutions are mixed and diluted to the required strength or to a specific gravity of 1.030 to 1.035. Now 1 to 2 dl of calcined soda is added to precipitate the rest of the lime. The clear solution is now ready for use. It is only necessary to dilute with water to the desired concentration.

Viscose

2 kg cotton waste or pure wood cellulose is dipped in 18 pct sodium hydroxide solution and the cellulose is left in this for about an hour. The excess lye is then pressed off until the wet cellulose weighs 6.5 kg. The wet cellulose is now left for 70 hours in a closed apparatus at 20℃ lie.

The mass is put in a mixing and kneading device, which can be closed completely. The cellulose is kneaded with ¾ kg carbon disulfide. The apparatus must be closed and after about 2 hours it can be seen that the orange xanthate has formed from the cellulose with the lye and the carbon disulfide.

This xanthate is now dissolved in a 3% sodium hydroxide solution until the solution contains 7% cellulose; 16 to 18 kg of lye are required for this purpose. This viscose is allowed to ripen for about 3 days, after which it can be spun into threads. The mass is pressed through very narrow openings, creating very fine threads, which are immediately led into a bath that makes the soluble viscose insoluble again. This bath contains acid and salt, so that the cellulose, which was bound as xanthate, is regenerated back to cellulose. When the viscose is poured onto a glass plate and the resulting thin layer is precipitated with the solution, a thin transparent sheet of cellulose is obtained, which is produced in bulk and marketed as cellophane or glass paper. The viscose artificial silk and the cellophane therefore consist of pure cellulose.

The spin bath can consist of:

Sulphuric acid	9	dl
Glauber's salt	18	dl
Zinc	1	dl
Glucose	5	dl
Water	67	dl
Temperature 45℃.

A thin layer of viscose can be obtained by pouring it onto a glass plate. The glass plate is then placed in a 30 pct ammonium sulphate solution, then in a saturated saline solution and then in 3 pct sulfuric acid. The film becomes clear and is then washed acid-free with clean water.

Embroidery

Some types of embroidery are based on the principle of making the background disappear again after embroidering. The embroidery is then carried out, for example, with cotton or artificial silk (viscose) on a base of wool. Now use is made of the fact that wool is very easily dissolved by lye and cotton is not. The embroidery is treated with a hot solution of caustic soda with a specific gravity of 1.025. The solution can be boiled, after which the wool has completely disappeared in 20 to 30 minutes. The remaining embroidery is then carefully washed and cleaned, and can then be painted if necessary.

Textile soap

Coconut fat	2060	dl
Calcined soda	135	dl
Caustic soda (NaOH) 39° Bé	1090	dl
Water	5715	dl
This soap can be kept alkaline or completely neutral. The pure coconut soap is ideally suited to be used with very hard water. The easy solubility of the coconut soap makes it very easy to wash out of the fabric later on. Since all coconut soaps have a tendency to become rancid, especially if they still contain unsaponified fat, they should not be stored for too long. However, the good properties - they give, among other things, a good shine to the fabric after calendering - mean that these soaps are still widely used. A finishing for shirting can consist of:
Starch	17	dl
Talcum	60	dl
Stearin soap	2½	dl
Coconut soap	1	dl
Water	tot 350	dl

Olive oil finishing

Trisodium phosphate
solution (25-pcts)	50	dl
Olive oil	30	dl
Sulfonated talc (50-pcts)	10-15	dl
Half of the olive oil is mixed with the boiling trisodium phosphate solution. The oil is stirred until it is emulsified, the oil is partially saponified in the process. Then add the rest of the olive oil and the sulfonated talc and stir until the emulsion is absolutely uniform. The emulsion is good when 10 cm³ of the emulsion with 100 cm³ water mixed, turns white without separating oil droplets. The emulsion is used for wool blankets, knitted or woven underwear and mercerized cotton.

Smooth yarns

Vaseline	50		dl
Zinc dust	50		dl

About finishing textiles

In textile manufacturing, finishing refers to the processes that convert the woven or knitted cloth into a usable material and more specifically to any process performed after dyeing the yarn or fabric to improve the look, performance, or "hand" (feel) of the finish textile or clothing. The precise meaning depends on context.
Fabric after leaving the loom or knitting machine is not readily useable. Called grey cloth at this stage, it contains natural and added impurities. Sometimes it is also processed at fiber or yarn stages of textile manufacturing. Grey fiber or yarn or fabric goes through a series of processes such as wet processing and finishing. Finishing is a broad range of physical and chemical treatments that complete one stage of textile manufacturing and may prepare for the next step, making the product more receptive to the next stage of manufacturing. Finishing adds value to the product and makes it more attractive, useful, and functional for the end-user. Improving surface feel, aesthetics, and addition of advanced chemical finishes are some examples of textile finishing.
Some finishing techniques such as bleaching and dyeing are .....
Source: wikipedia

Silk

Real silk consists of two substances in its natural state, the core is fibroin and there is a layer of sericin on it. The latter substance is relatively easily soluble, while the inner substance, the actual fiber, is much less easily affected. The contaminants contained in natural silk are mainly found in the outermost layer, in the bark. For dyeing and further processing it is almost always necessary to remove this bark. The bark substance now somewhat resembles gelatin, but dissolves only slowly when boiled in water. Since the fiber is attacked by diluted lye, which makes it very brittle and less shiny, the bark must be dissolved with soap and a little soda, always very careful not to damage the actual fiber.

When boiling with soapy water, the fiber naturally becomes lighter in weight, but also much lighter in color and more shiny, the thread becomes softer and absorbs the dyes better and more evenly during dyeing.

Mixed fabrics are treated in the same way, which consist, for example, of real silk with artificial silk or cotton. This also removes all contaminants, the quality is much better. After this boiling, it is then rinsed very carefully with water.

Here and there debarking is done with sulfonated castor oil. Take 1 dl of oil in 1000 dl of water and add 2 dl of soda. Cooking takes only half an hour, the rest of the sericin is only removed during the dyeing process. A thin layer then remains on the fiber.

Fabric waterproofing

Vaseline	30	dl
Aluminum palmitate	15	dl
Yellow Beeswax	50	dl
Soft paraffin	105	dl
Petroleum distillate	800	dl

The vaseline is at 55℃ heated and mixed with the palmitate. The wax and paraffin are then added while heating and heated to 130°C. Stir until the mass is completely uniform.

The melt is allowed to reach 100℃ cool and then dilute with the petroleum distillate.

The solution can be used to impregnate fabrics with excellent water resistance. The solution can be applied by hand or by machine.

Another, also flammable, solution consists of:

Paraffin	2	dl
Damar resin	6	dl
Caoutchouc	1	dl
Benzole	65	dl

If necessary, dilute with some carbon disulfide (extremely flammable).

A solution, which can also be used for paper, is:

CollodionCollodion 15-20 sec	1	dl
Hard paraffin	4	dl
Lubricating oil (naphthene)	6	dl
Butyl stearate	2	dl
Butyl Acetate	4	dl
Ethyl Acetate	25	dl
Gasoline	13	dl
Toluol	40	dl
Spirit	5	dl
or:
Collodion 15-20 sec	1	dl
Japan wax	3	dl
Lubricating oil (naphtene)	3	dl
Toluol	30	dl
Ethyl Acetate	33	dl
Butyl Acetate	30	dl

In both recipes, the paraffin and the lubricating oil are preferably dissolved in the gasoline and the toluene, the collodion is dissolved in the acetates. The other ingredients are then added to the collodion solution and finally the washing solution is also added.

The solutions are preferably not applied to the tissue, but the tissues are dipped into the liquid and then the excess of the solution is squeezed off; in large this is best done between rollers. In general, one works at normal temperature. In the case of solutions containing paraffin, the room must not be too cold, as the paraffin can separate in this case. After pressing, the fabric or paper is allowed to dry at normal or moderately elevated temperature.

Waterproofing sails and tarpaulins [1]

Recipe no. 1.
Unboiled linseed oil	35	dl
Beeswax	4	dl
Lead white	5	dl
Rosin	4	dl

The mixture is applied hot. The underside of the tarpaulin is thoroughly wetted beforehand with a sponge.

Recipe no. 2.
Gilsonite	80	dl
Stearin pitch	62	dl
Soft paraffin	34	dl
Lubricating oil	10	dl
Creosote oil	10	dl
Copper linoleate	9	dl

Apply at 150℃, scrape off the excess.

Recipe no. 3.
Beeswax	25	dl
Glycerin stearate	5	dl
Stearin pitch	102	dl
Copper oleate	15	dl
Castor oil	48	dl
Naphtha	50	dl

Recipe no. 4. For large rugs.
Yellow Vaseline	8½	dl
Yellow beeswax	1½	dl
Obra	5	dl
Paint petrol	40	dl
or:
Petroleum asphalt (medium)	7½	dl
Yellow vaseline	2½	dl
Carbon black	1	dl
Paint gasoline	40	dl

Waterproofing sails and tarpaulins [2]

Tarpaulin that does not need to be folded, so remains attached, can be made waterproof with:

Boiled linseed oil	4	dl
Carbon black in paste	1	dl
Siccative as much as necessary.
or:
Boiled linseed oil	8	dl
Aluminum bronze	1	dl
Siccative as needed.

Waterproofing light fabrics

Light fabrics, which do not come to light, can be waterproofed with a 5 to 10 pct solution of beeswax in turpentine oil.

Make clothes water resistant

During chemical washing, which is actually only cleaning with organic solvents, the treated garments can be made water-repellent and therefore more or less watertight very easily by dissolving a soap of a non-alkaline metal in the solvent. To this end one can take magnesium stearate or oleate, aluminum palmitate and others; it is very advantageous to add a small amount of paraffin or rosin. Take, for example, 1% of soap in relation to the solvent. Since these soaps sometimes dissolve poorly and slowly, a 10 percent solution is usually first made on a water bath and then added to the solvent in the washing apparatus.

Watch out!

When preparing these preparations, the solids are first melted at the lowest possible temperature. After this, the non-volatile liquids are added and the pot removed from the vicinity of fire. This is then diluted with the volatile solvents. This dilution may never take place in a room where fire or open light is burning, for example gaslight. Due to their relative weight, the vapors of many volatile substances have the property of creeping along the ground. It is therefore possible that over a distance of many meters the vapors come into contact with fire, the vapors ignite and the flame spreads to the device where one is diluting. A small explosion may then follow, throwing the hot contents out of the pot and a serious fire may result, apart from the burns that the person taking the tests may sustain.

Even when working with small quantities, it must be stipulated that the vapors cannot come into contact with fire when diluting with flammable solvents. It is therefore best to go to another room or outside.

When a preparation containing solvents has become too cold and therefore too stiff, it can be warmed up by placing it in a container or pot with hot water. So the water is heated beforehand and then taken to a room where no fire burns; here the bottle or jar with flammable material is placed in the hot water. All preparations used for waterproofing must be stirred before application, just like any paint. In general, the preparations are applied with a brush. The canvas is stretched on a window beforehand. If you have very large surfaces to treat, it pays to purchase a paint sprayer.

In general it is sufficient to apply the layer on one side. As a result, the fabric also remains sufficiently flexible and it does not become too heavy; the weight generally already increases by about 50%.

When waterproofing with preparations. containing linseed oil, the cloths may not immediately be rolled up or folded, even when the layer appears to be completely dry; the post-oxidation still releases quite a lot of heat and the cloths then become sticky. In addition, it is recommended to rub the rugs with a thin layer of talcum.

Waterproofing clothes

First impregnate with a soap solution:

Stearin soap	25		dl
Boiling water	800		dl

Gradually add to the hot soap solution:

Japan WAX

The second solution is a solution of aluminum acetate, which can be made by dissolving:

Lead Acetate	50	dl
Aluminum sulfate	40	dl
Water	800	dl

The clear solution is poured off the sediment.

The fabrics, which are first soaked in the soap solution, must not be dried, but they are simply wringed out. Immediately after this, they are dipped in the aluminum acetate solution, so that the precipitate of the insoluble and water-repellent aluminum stearate can form in the fiber.

Depending on the nature of the substance, the solutions can also be used in reverse order.

The substance is then first bathed in a solution of pure aluminum acetate of 4° up to 5' Bé and then let the fabric dry well in a warm room. Subsequently, the fabric or garment is dipped in a solution of 5% soap in soft water. The excess liquid is removed by squeezing and finally the fabric is dipped in a 2% alum solution. After that it is dried.

Other preparations are:

Solution 1::
Hard soap	10	dl
Dextrin	20	dl
Water	130	dl

Still moist to treat with:

Solution 2:
Zinc sulfate	6	dl
Water	72	dl

Then dry, any visible white particles are brushed off.

or:
Lead Acetate	45	dl
Tannin	6	dl
Sodium sulfate (Glauber's salt)	3	dl
Alum	30	dl
Water	350	dl

or:
Naphtha	100	dl
Caoutchouc cement	45	dl
Ester resin	20	dl
Coumarone resin	4	dl
Paraffin	32	dl

Waterproof straw hats

Recipe no. 1.		dl
Bleached shellac	75	dl
Rosin WW	15	dl
Venetian turpentine	15	dl
Castor oil	2	dl
Spirit	250	dl

Recipe no. 2.		dl
Sandarak	135	dl
Elemi	45	dl
Castor oil	11	dl
Bleached rosin	45	dl
Spirit	700	dl

Recipe no. 3.		dl
Bleached shellac	120	dl
Sandarak	30	dl
Incense	30	dl
Spirit	700	dl

Silk stockings

The formation of ladders can be considerably reduced by rinsing the stockings with soap in a solution of ½ to 1% alum after washing.

Make curtains non-flammable

First impregnate with a soap solution:

Ammonium phosphate	1	dl
Ammonium chloride	2	dl
Water	12	dl
of:
Borax	10	dl
Boric acid	8	dl
Water	130	dl

For very sensitive tissue, the borax boric acid solution is the best. The same solutions can be used to make all kinds of fabrics fireproof. By non-combustible we should here mean less flammable or hardly flammable, because like all organic substances, such impregnated fabrics are nevertheless decomposed by high temperatures. However, the fire is not conducted further by fabrics impregnated in this way.

Make fabric non-flammable

Ammonium chloride	20	l
Zinc chloride 30 %	400	kg
Ammonia 28 %	300	kg
Water	100	dl
or:
2-pcts aluminum sulfate-
solution	1	dl
5-pcts soda water glass	1	dl

Mix shortly before use and dip the tissues in the solution and wring out. Then let it dry.

Another method consists of first treating with a dilute solution of ammonium phosphate and then with a solution of magnesium chloride with excess ammonia. A precipitate of the insoluble magnesium phosphate then forms in the fiber. The soluble salts are washed out.

Impregnations, which are very little affected by washing, are obtained with the aid of tungstates. To do this, first treat the substances with a sodium stannate solution of 14%. Be. After that it is dried. The tissue is now dipped in a bath of the following composition:

Natriumwolframaat 35	4	l
Acetic acid 9° Bé	1	kg
Salmiac solution 4° Bé	3	kg
Zinc acetate 17° Bé	2	kg

The excess of the liquid is removed by centrifugation, the fabric is dried and the last remnants of the acetic acid are removed by hot calendering.

Finally:
First impregnate with a solution of sodium stannate of : 26'176; Bé, then dry and then treat with a solution of ammonium sulphate at 10%. Be. The excess is wrung out and the rest of the ammonium sulphate can be rinsed out with water; this is not necessary, as the ammonium sulfate itself also has a deafening effect.

Spinning and twisting on the spinning wheel

Ropemaker's grease

Gele vaseline	5	dl
Boiled linseed oil	15	dl
Beef fat	80	dl
or:
Rosin	10	dl
Yellow soap	24	dl
Wool fat	25	dl
Linseed oil	30	dl

Rope impregnating wax

Venetian turpentine	500	dl
Plant wax	400	dl
Earth wax	300	dl
Spermaceti	250	dl
or:
Pure paraffin

The rope or cord is pulled through the molten mass and it is rubbed with a piece of leather after cooling to remove the excess wax.

Spinning grease

Emulphor FM	2	dl
Spindle oil	52	dl
Soap solution 10%	3	dl
Water	43	dl

Spinning grease for jute and hemp

Unbleached Teardrop	30		dl
Spin oil 3° Engler	70		dl

Spin oil for worsted yarn

Oleic acid	40		dl
Triethanolamine	2	,2	dl
Water	60		dl
The triethanolamine is dissolved in the water and mixed with the oleic acid at 40°C. The emulsion is then homogenized in a homogenizing machine at a pressure of 150 atm.

Walk oil for cloth

Turkish red oil 50%,
salt free	30	dl
Cyclonol	1	dl
Spirit	1	dl
Methyl glycol	1	dl
Oleic acid, technically pure	15	dl
The mixture is neutralized precisely with caustic soda or made very weakly alkaline. Soft water is then added until the total amount is 100 dl. Finally, it is allowed to stand for a few days, drained and filtered.

Vigogne spinning grease

Caustic soda (NaOH) 25° Bé	4	dl
Potassium 25° Bé	3	dl
Boiling water	21	dl
Stearic acid	8	dl
Coconut oil	12	dl
Beef fat	25	dl
Talgol	25	dl
Preservative
The lye is dissolved in the water and brought to a boil, the molten stearic acid is poured into the boiling diluted lye. The fats are melted together and added to the soap solution.

Sheet spinning grease

Recipe no. 1.
Ammonium linoleate	6	dl
Water	52	dl
Oleic acid	42	dl
The ammonium linoleate is dissolved in the water and carefully added to the oleic acid in small portions.

Recipe no. 2.
Oleic acid	26	dl
Triethanolamine	2	dl
Water	72	dl
The oleic acid is melted together with the triethanolamine and slowly diluted with the water. A yellow-white emulsion is obtained.

Ring grease for twisters

Spermaceti	40	dl
Pure castor oil	60	dl
or:
Pure castor oil	85	dl
Lanette wax	15	dl
or:
Diglycol stearate	15	dl
Oleic acid	5	dl
Paraffin oil	80	dl
or:
Tegin	12	dl
Stearic acid	3	dl
White laundry	3	dl
Beef fat	15	dl
Spindle oil	17	dl
Water	50	dl

Waterproof fabric impregnation

The fabric is soaked with a solution of Velan PF and dried in a stream of hot air. The fabric is then heated for a short time at a temperature of 100° to 150° C, whereby the Velan chemically bonds with the fibre. The fabric is now washed in an alkaline bath and is then water-repellent and therefore waterproof. The preparation can be used for wool and for cotton.

Iron-on pattern paint

Sandarac	2	dl
Rosin	1	dl
Indigo	2	dl
Carbon tetrachloride	10	dl
The resins are melted on a water bath, the pigment is added and stirred well. Finally, dilute with the tetra. For dark fabrics, the blue is replaced by zinc white. Before use, the paint must be shaken well until it is completely uniform. By grinding the resins into a fine powder and in the same proportion with By mixing the pigment, the preparation is obtained in powder form, which can be passed through a perforated pattern onto the fabric and then fixed with a moderately hot iron.

Grease emulsion

Coconut fat	46	dl
Spirit soap	10	dl
Water	44	dl
The fat is mixed warm with the spirit soap and then emulsified with the water.

Grease for slightening artificial silk

Tegin	17	dl
Olive oil	10	dl
Sesame oil	20	dl
Water	53	dl
1 to 2 thousandth of this is added to the porridge.

Fuller's oil

Turkish red oil 100%	80	dl
Cyclonol	3	dl
Methylhexaline	12	dl
The mixture is neutralized with sodium hydroxide solution until phenolphthalein just turns red.
or:
Oleic acid	70	dl
Methylhexaline	5	dl
Carbon tetrachloride	20	dl
The mixture is neutralized with sodium hydroxide solution until phenolphthalein just turns red.

Gloss finish

Nekal AEM	1	,5	dl
Water	7	,5	dl
Japan wax	41		dl
Water	50		dl
The Nekal is first dissolved in the hot water, mixed with the melted Japan wax and then diluted with the rest of the water.

Waterproof finish

Lanette wax	14	dl
Palm kernel oil	7	dl
Beef fat	10	dl
Japan wax	23	dl
Hot water	46	dl
The waxes and fats are first melted and then emulsified with the hot water.

Avivage emulsion for silk and artificial silk

Nekal AEM	2	dl
Water	10	dl
Oleic acid	30	dl
Warm water	48	dl
The Nekal is dissolved in the 10 dl of boiling water and emulsified with the oleic acid. The other water is then added hot.

Rayon, viscose or artificial silk

Rayon is a semi-synthetic fiber, made from natural sources of regenerated cellulose, such as wood and related agricultural products. It has the same molecular structure as cellulose. It is also called viscose. Many types and grades of viscose fibers and films exist. Some imitate the feel and texture of natural fibers such as silk, wool, cotton, and linen. The types that resemble silk are often called artificial silk.
The fibre is used to make textiles for clothing and other purposes. Rayon production involves solubilizing cellulose to allow turning the fibers into required form. Three common ways to solubilize are the cuprammonium process, not in use today, using ammoniacal solutions of copper salts; the viscose process, the most common today, using alkali and carbon disulfide; and the Lyocell process, using amine oxide. The last avoids the neurotoxic carbon disulfide of the viscose process but is also more expensive .....
Source: wikipedia

Yarn finish

Bleached montan wax	8	dl
Paraffin 40°/42° C	10	dl
Rosin	7	dl
Potash	2	dl
Water	60	dl

Finishing for cotton damask

Montan wax A	10		dl
Stearic acid	15		dl
Soap	2	,5	dl
Gelatin	2	,5	dl
Calcined soda	0	,3	dl
Starch	10		dl
Water	400		dl

Waterproof fabric

Montan wax Nova	8	dl
Stearic acid	8	dl
Paraffin 50°/52° C	8	dl
Soft soap	15	dl
Water	200	dl
Skin glue	10	dl
Linseed oil	5	dl
Strong ammonia	1	dl
The fabric is first treated with a 5% solution of aluminum acetate, wrung out and then impregnated with the wax emulsion. The tissue is then treated again with a diluted aluminum salt solution.

Grease for cotton drive belts

Triethanolamine	2	dl
Water	40	dl
Rosin	34	dl
Lanolin	17	dl
Castor oil	4	dl
Oleic acid	3	dl
The triethanolamine is dissolved in the boiling water, the other ingredients are melted together and mixed with the boiling solution with stirring. A small part of the rosin can be replaced by caoutchouc or gutta-percha.

Pickling solution for paraffin candle wicks

Ammonium sulfate	15	dl
Boric acid	6	dl
Oxalic acid	2	dl
Water	1000	dl

For composition candles:
Ammonium sulfate	50	dl
Ammonium Phosphate	17	dl
Borax	25	dl
Water	1000	dl

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